Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Diseases

Molecular Immunology manages the comprehension of the resistant fame work and how it capacities to shield us from pathogens, similar to microscopic organisms and infections, while in the meantime regarding the innocuous or valuable microorganisms in our conditions. Different systems utilized in Molecular Immunology Antibodies counteracting agent utilize Elisa, Nephelometry and Radioimmunology.

Tumor Immunology is interdisciplinary branch of biology concerned with the role of the immune system in the progression and development of cancer. The most well know application is Cancer Immune therapy whereas immune system is used to treat cancer. Cancer immunosurveillance is a theory formulated in 1957 by Burnet and Thomas, who proposed that lymphocytes acts as sentinels in recognizing and eliminating continuously arising, nascent transformed cells. Cancer immunosurveillance appears to be an important host protection process that decreases cancer rate through inhibition of carcinogenesis and maintaining of regular cellular hemostasis. It also be suggested that immunosurveillance primarily functions as a component of a more general process of cancer immunoediting.

Immunoediting induces selection for certain tumor cells, which loose dominant tumor-specific antigens allowing the tumor to progress. It has 3 main phases: elimination, equilibrium and escape.

Mucosal Immunology is the study of immune system response that occurs at mucosal membrane of the intestines, the urogenital tracts and respiratory systems, i.e. surface which are contact with the external environment in healthy states, the mucosal immune system provide protection against pathogens but maintains a tolerance towards non-harmful commensal microbes and benign environmental substance. Since the mucosal membranes are primary contact point between a host and its environment a large amount of secondary lymphoid tissue is found here. The mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues or MALT provides the organism with an important line of defense.  

Transplantation is an act of transferring cells, tissues, or organ from one site to other. Graft is implanted cell, tissue or organ. Development of the field of organ and tissue transplantation has accelerated remarkably since the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) was discovered in 1967. Matching of donor and recipient for MHC antigens has been shown to have a significant positive effect on graft acceptance. The roles of the different components of the immune system involved in the tolerance or rejection of grafts and in graft-versus-host disease have been clarified. These components include: antibodies, antigen presenting cells, helper and cytotoxic t cell subsets, immune cell surface molecules, signaling mechanisms and cytokines that they release. The development of pharmacologic and biological agents that interfere with the all immune response and graft rejection has had a crucial role in the success of organ transplantation. Combinations of these agents work synergistically, leading to lower doses of immunosuppressive drugs and reduced toxicity. Significant numbers of successful solid organ transplants include those of the kidneys, liver, heart and lung.

Neuroimmunology is a field combining neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system. Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries. A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological diseases, some of which have no clear etiology. In doing so, Neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions. Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the physiological functioning of the two systems in health and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

Immuno dermatology studies skin as an organ of immunity in health and diseases. Several areas have specific attention, such as photo-immunology (effects of UV light on skin defense), inflammatory diseases such as Hidradenitis suppurativa, allergic contact dermatitis and atopic eczema, presumably autoimmune diseases such as vtiligo and psoriasis and finally the immunology of microbial skin diseases such as retrovirus infection and leprosy. New therapies in the development for the immunomodulation of common immunological skin diseases includes biological aimed at neutralizing TNF-Alfa and chemokine receptor inhibitor.

Immunogenetics is a branch of medical genetics that explores the relationship between the immune system and genetics. Autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetics are complex genetic traits which results from defects in immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approach. Alternatively genetic variation can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease. The term Immunogenetics comprises all the processes of organisms, which are on the one hand, controlled and influenced by the genes of the organism and are on the other hand significant with the regard to the immunological defense reaction of the organism.

Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual’s immune system to develop adaptive immunity to pathogen. Vaccine can prevent or ameliorate infectious disease. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of the smallpox and elimination of diseases such as polio, measles and tetanus from much of the world.

Immunization is the process by which individual’s immune system becomes fortified against an agent known as immunogen. When this system is exposed to molecules that are foreign to the body, called non-self it will orchestrate an immune response, and it will also develop the ability to quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because of immunological memory. This is a function of the adaptive immune system. Therefore by exposing an animal to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself this is called active immunization. Passive immunization is direct introduction to these elements into the body, instead of production of these elements by the body itself.

The innate immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies found in vertebrates (the other being the adaptive immune system). The innate immune system is an older evolutionary defense strategy, relatively speaking, and it is the dominant immune system response found in plants, fungi, insects, and primitive multicellular organisms.

Immunology research tends to a fascinating medium for the introduction, understanding and clarification of complex sensible information. Data appears as interpretive blend diagrams, exceptional research articles, symposia, preparations and theoretical structures. The level of argument reaches to the cell immunology, tumor immunology, immunoregulation, immunopathology, auxiliary immunology molecular immunology and autoimmunity have ensured and microbial restriction including viral immunology, transplantation immunology, Immunoendocrinology, translational immunology, Neuroimmunology and clinical immunology.

Nutritional Immunology or Immunonutrition is a newly recognized sub discipline of vast clinical and public health importance. This discipline interrelates seemingly desperate fields of Nutrition and Immunology. Despite of their apparent independence in the immune system cannot function optimally if malnutrition is present.

Reproductive immunology refers to a field of medicine that studies interactions (or the absence of them) between the immune system and components related to the reproductive system, such as maternal immune tolerance towards the fetus, or immunological interactions across the blood-testis barrier. The concept has been used by fertility clinics to explain the fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages and pregnancy complications observed when this state of immunological tolerance is not successfully achieved. Immunological therapy is the new up and coming method for treating many cases of previously "unexplained infertility" or recurrent miscarriage.

The Department of Developmental Immunology consists of two independent research groups. The immune system develops from hematopoietic precursor cells in the bone marrow. These precursors go through rounds of cell division and differentiation to give rise to the various different lymphoid and non-lymphoid lineages that go to make up the innate and adaptive immune systems.

The immunologists are investigating the origin and evolution of lymphoid organs and the adaptive immune system, the intestinal immune system, and adaptive and innate immunity with a focus on various aspects of immune tolerance. The immune system which initiates its development far before birth with in the fetus and because of which the development continues even after reaching the adulthood. The capacity to react to antigens and foreign invaders is thus dependent on: Age of the person, Type of antigen, maternal factors, Area of body.

Considering the case of neonates and children where the immune system is not fully functional at birth and still developing later on, the chances of them being susceptible to infections and pathogensis high and response to vaccines is not that effective compared to adults. This could later lead to development of allergy, asthma or other immune disorders hence the care and prevention methods employed is discussed under Neonatal Immunology and Pediatric immunology. Infants receive their innate immunology through their mother either by placenta when they are in the womb or through breast milk. Immunity acquired later on by infants and kids is acquired through life. Asthma pregnancy i.e. if the mother has asthma then chances exists for children to develop allergy/ asthma. Children who get in contact with several foreign agents are prone to Pediatric Allergy. 

Ecoimmunologyis an interdisciplinary field combining aspects of immunology with ecology, biology, physiology, and evolution. The field of Eco immunology, while young, seeks to give an ultimate perspective for proximate mechanisms of immunology.

The behavioral immune system is a phrase coined by the psychological scientist Mark Schaller to refer to a suite of psychological mechanisms that allow individual organisms to detect the potential presence of disease-causing parasites in their immediate environment, and to engage in behaviors that prevent contact with those objects and individuals

An immune disorder is a dysfunction of the immune system. These disorders can be characterized in several different ways:

• By the component(s) of the immune system affected
• By whether the immune system is overactive or underactive
• By whether the condition is congenital or acquired

According to the International Union of Immunological Societies, more than 150 primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDs) have been characterized. However, the number of acquired immunodeficiency’s exceeds the number of PIDs. It has been suggested that most people have at least one primary immunodeficiency.  Due to redundancies in the immune system, though, many of these are never detected

Infections are caused by disease drivers such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Physicians conclude an infection based on symptoms and results of physical tests. Once after confirming the person from infection to a type of illness, they should be aware of the specific infectious agent as varied microbes cause the same infection. As different infectious diseases possess similar kind of symptoms, body fluid samples, reveal the evidential causing agent of our disease.

Clinical approaches like imaging methods such as computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and X-rays reveals condition of the infection. Immunological approach of testing antibody using blood sample and other body fluids of infected person are performed.

Bacteriologyis the branch and specialty of biology that studies the morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them.

Infectious diseases are diseases caused by biological agents, which can be transmitted to others, rather than by genetic, physical or chemical agents. This definition includes disease caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi and prions. This page includes list of infectious diseases as pertains to humans; those affecting animals 

In epidemiology, a disease vector is any agent who carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism; most agents regarded as vectors are organisms, such as intermediate parasites or microbes, but it could be an inanimate medium of infection such as dust particles.

Virology is the study of viruses – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of microbiology or of medicine.

Molecular biology techniques are common methods used in molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics and biophysics which generally involve manipulation and analysis of DNA, RNA, protein and lipid.

Virotherapy is a treatment using biotechnology to convert viruses into therapeutic agents by reprogramming viruses to treat diseases. There are three main branches of Virotherapy : anti-cancer oncotic viruses, viral vectors for gene therapy and viral immunotherapy.