Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Diseases

Immunomics is also a discipline like genomics and proteomics. It is a science, which specifically combines Immunology with computer science, mathematics, chemistry, and biochemistry for large-scale analysis of immune system functions. It aims to study the complex protein–protein interactions and networks and allows a better understanding of immune responses and their role during normal, diseased and reconstitution states. 

The immune system being the complex network of human body, understanding it is one of the most accepting challenging. Research in immunology is carried on understanding the mechanisms underlying the human defense centre and to develop immunological drugs. Recent technological innovations in genomics and proteomics transformed the research work in immunology. Sequencing of human and other model organism genomes produced increasingly higher volumes of immunological, clinical and functional data. Recent advances in computational biology made easy to understand and organize these large scale data which lead to Computational immunology or Immunoinformatics.

Immunoinformatics is a branch of bioinformatics deals with phylogenetic analysis and modeling of immunological data and problems. It encompasses the study and design of algorithms for mapping potential B- and T-cell epitopes, which lessens the time and cost required for laboratory analysis of pathogen gene products. Using this information, an immunologist can explore the potential binding sites, which, in turn, leads to the development of new vaccines. This methodology is termed reverse vaccinology and it analyses the pathogen genome to identify potential antigenic proteins. This is advantageous to conventional methods from cultivating and extracting the antigenic proteins from a pathogen.  Hence it is capable of identifying virulence genes and surface-associated proteins.

The immune system plays a dual role against cancer: it prevents tumor cell outgrowth and also sculpts the immunogenicity of the tumor cells. Cancer cells are able to escape from the immune system by inhibiting T lymphocytes activation. New immunotherapies have been developed to target these T lymphocytes activation modulators: the immune checkpoints, defined as molecules of immune system that either turn up a signal or turn down a signal. Most of the cancers protect themselves from immune system by inhibiting activation of T cell.

 These novel therapies are showing promising results with durable objective responses in some patients. Ipilimumab (anti-CTLA4) was the first of these new therapeutics to be approved by the FDA in March 2011 for advanced melanoma and other immunomodulators trials are ongoing in other cancers with similar encouraging results like with the anti PD-1/PD-L1. These drugs are already challenging our future practice like for evaluation of tumor response or for management of immune related toxicities. Many immune checkpoints have been identified and could potentially be targeted. Future studies will help to identify predictive factors but also to coordinate these new immunotherapies with our classic treatment strategies.

The immune system plays a key role in the healthy life of an individual. It offers resistance from disease and infection by recognition of invading foreign particle and later eliminating from the body. Exposure to a variety of chemicals can affect this system adversely; putting us at risk for illness and disease.

Few of them can illicit enhanced immune response which results in tissue damage and infectious diseases. Amplification of the immune system can lead to chemical hypersensitivity and autoimmune disease. Sometimes with the usage of immunosuppressive drugs, immune system mediates an adverse drug reaction which in turn leads to autoimmune reactions.

In vertebrates, adoptive immune system provides resistance from harmful pathogens and infectious diseases which requires normal functioning and interaction of cells and organs of immune system. The study of adverse health effects from the interaction of immune system is termed as immunotoxicity.  

Immune system is an organized intricate network of cells and organs that protects our body from invading foreign pathogens. This defence centre provides immunity which provides shelter from both disease and infection. Disfunctioning of such supportive centre leads to Immune deficiency, which in turn induce Immunodeficiency disorders. These disorders impair the immune system’s ability to defend the invading foreign cells. They are primarily caused by genetic mutations and are inherited. Secondarily immune deficiencies are acquired from a foreign pathogen like virus or by using immune suppression drugs.

There’s a situation where the immune system attacks the healthy cells within, which induce infection and disease termed as autoimmune disease. These in turn affects many parts of the body. These are more likely to occur in women of American countries. 

Immunology being the branch of science that deals with the functions and malfunctions of immune system has its administration in various other fields. In medical sense, immunology governs the body defence system against invading foreign particles and its associated disorders. These annexing microbes cause contagious diseases for which our body’s immune system contains cellular components which recognize and destroy them. This perception induces new techniques of immunization.

Immunology governs the body defence system against invading foreign particles and its associated disorders. The proper functioning of an immune system includes, detecting the pathogens and disease drivers that invades the host system and differentiate them from self-particles. These annexing microbes cause contagious diseases for which our body’s immune system contains cellular components which recognize their presence and destroys them leaving an immunological memory.

Basic immune system in most of the species is categorized into humoral and cell-mediated immunity. In humans, there are specialized barriers called blood-brain barrier and more which protects the brain from invading pathogens. Recent advancements in this cellular immunology reveal the information of signaling between the invading pathogen and host cells.

Years ago, immunologists typically spent the bulk of their time at the laboratory bench. Their research involved peering into a microscope and probably characterizing the different cells from a blood sample. And their understanding of the immune response was limited to what they could see and, based on that, what they could hypothesize.

That was then. These days, immunologists work on the tools and technologies. Instead of being confined to the visual examination of living units, a researcher able to understand the immune system using these developed tools and technologies. Scientific teams tackled studies on cells, organs and tissues, molecular pathways and animals in the effort to understand the complex network of immune system. As a result, the biological science fellows gained understanding of the immune system, from cellular level (B and T cells) to molecular pathways.

Scientists confide to new and improved technologies of advanced innovations in understanding and application of immunological process. Cellular assays measure multiple cytokine levels simultaneously. The modifications of existing assays required a brief awareness of ELISPOT assays and fluorescence cell sorting which describes the recognition of T cells for epitope activation.

Taking an antibiotic isn’t the only way to get over symptoms. In fact, some remedies don’t require a physician’s prescription and they can be done right at home in addition to any treatment your doctor has recommended.

The attributes of host and parasite interactions that determine immune recognition are specificity and cross reactivity. The degree of differentiation between the varied antigens of immune system is measured by specificity. Whereas, cross-reactivity measures the extent to which varied antigens appear similar to the immune system. The infinitesimal attributes of specificity and cross-reactivity describes the process of selection and nature of antigenic variation that shape the distribution of modification in population.

The interaction between invading pathogen and T cells is as follows: cellular digestion of pathogen protein, transport of resulting peptides to endoplasmic reticulum, formation of MHC-peptide complex, and binding of MHC-peptide complex to TCR. It is known from recent studies that a TCR performs cross-reaction with ~105 varied peptides. When a TCR reacts with its specific peptide, the probability of reacting with a randomly chosen peptide is only ~10−4.  Hence, TCR is termed as highly cross-reactive and highly specific. 

The host immune system retains immunological memory of B and T cells stimulated by previous infections. Upon later inoculation, a host rapidly builds defense from its memory cells. Each host acquires a unique memory profile based on its infection history.

With respect to the antigenic response of pathogen, the host varies genetically. MHC alleles are highly polymorphic. The germ line genes that contribute to the T cell receptor have some polymorphisms that influence recognition, but the germ line B cell receptor genes do not carry any known polymorphisms.

The immune profiles of host system describe the degree of distribution of specific antigenic variants. Host systems that are previously affected by the pathogen tend to have broader profiles as these are experienced with infections. Maternal antibodies provide short-term resistance to infants, and certain antibody along with TCR provides temporary protection to recently infected hosts. The host system may vary spatially in their prior exposure to different epitopes, creating a spatial mosaic in the selective pressures that favor different antigenic variants.

Infections are caused by disease drivers such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Physicians conclude an infection based on symptoms and results of physical tests. Once after confirming the person from infection to a type of illness, they should be aware of the specific infectious agent as varied microbes cause the same infection. As different infectious diseases possess similar kind of symptoms, body fluid samples, reveal the evidential causing agent of our disease.

Clinical approaches like imaging methods such as computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and X-rays reveals condition of the infection. Immunological approach of testing antibody using blood sample and other body fluids of infected person are performed.

Infectious diseases are caused by harmful pathogens such as virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa and spread via direct or indirect contact. Infections can be transmitted from animal to person and from person to person. Diseases can spread through exchange of bodily fluids from sexual contact and during blood transfusion. It is also possible to contract an infectious disease from an inanimate object which has previously been contaminated with pathogen. Some infectious organisms live naturally in the surrounding environment but cannot be transmitted from person to person. Examples of these pathogens include anthrax and histoplasmosis or blastomycosis. There are many recent tools available for the study of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Herpes virus, Influenza virus, and many more infectious diseases.

Recent research in laboratories is primarily focused on infectious diseases in developing countries. Laboratory-based research may be supplemented by field-based studies of epidemiological and ecological aspects of infectious disease transmission and control.

Current immune-mediated and infectious disease includes HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria, Pneumonia, Enteric Diseases, and Autoimmune diseases. In future, immunological studies concentrate on genetic regulation of the immune response, the reciprocity of innate immune system and intestinal microbial communities, the functioning and regulation of T-cell-derived cytokines and cytokines involved in the inflammation regulation.

Recent studies shown that basic pathogenic mechanisms  lead to development of advanced diagnostic tools and  vaccines used in  prevention and control of infection and disease and the identification of new targets for antiviral and ant parasitic drugs. The battle between pathogens and the host immune defenses has raged for thousands of years. 

The immune system has succeeded in exploring varied approaches to control parasitic infections ranging from direct killing to developing cytokines that hamper replication.  Pathogens are encountered with developing immune evasion mechanisms that inhibit functioning of cytokines and arrest immune recognition of infected cells. Efforts carried out to interpret and signalize the opposing mechanisms will assuredly generate improvised treatment of infectious diseases ranging from AIDS and parasitic infections to sexually transmitted diseases and the common cold.

Infectious disease can be catastrophic, and sometimes lethal, to the host. Most of the disease drivers show a significant degree of host specificity.

During infection process each stage is hindered by varied defense mechanisms. When host system is open to invading pathogen, host infectivity is determined by stability and mode of transmission outside the infectious agent. Few infectious diseases like anthrax are transmitted by heat resistant spores. While others such as HIV are spread only exchange of body fluids as they are unable to survive as infectious agents outside the body.

When a microbe is profitably settled onto infection site of host, incidence of disease and infection happens and secrete toxins that transmit to other parts of the body. Extracellular parasites advance by direct extension of the focus of infection through the lymphatic and the bloodstream.

Industrial immunology aims to contribute to the development of new methods and drugs for the prevention and treatment of immunological disorders and inflammation-associated diseases, including autoimmunity and cancer. It endeavors better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms that underlie innate immune receptor signaling, gene expression and the effect of host-derived molecules on either stimulating or suppressing inflammatory responses.

Immune system being the defence centre of our body provides immunity which is termed as the process in which our body defends itself against a foreign particle. Immunology is a large therapy area characterized by maladies of the immune system, specifically an aberrant immune response against healthy tissues present in the body, leading to chronic or acute inflammation.

Immunology is an integral of other branches and each branch is inter dependent. Depending on the specific site affected, this can lead to various types of chronic pain and loss of mobility, and have a negative impact on quality of life.

This disease area has a total of 2,145 yields in active development, trailing only oncology, infectious diseases and central nervous system disorders in terms of channel size. There are a total of 529 immunology pipeline products that act on first-in-class molecular targets, representing approximately 40% of the total immunology pipeline for which the molecular target was disclosed.

Due to a degree of crossover between immunology indications in terms of their underlying pathophysiology, it is not uncommon for products being developed for this therapy area to have developmental programs testing them across multiple indications.

Immunology is the branch of life sciences that deals with the functioning of immune system. It is a vibrant field that waves current and evolving disputes within both Biomedical and Natal Science disciplines. The components, principles and mechanisms of the human immune system and how they co-ordinate to set safe and appropriate protection against infection.

This particular section discusses the evolutionary processes and technologies that produced diversity in industrial research and career. Discrimination and tuning of immune responses to meet the challenges of different anatomical sites, such as in the skin, gut and lung will be considered. Current and emerging use of immune molecules in diagnostic and clinical intervention strategies are highlighted, including the therapeutic manipulation of the immune system in cancer treatment, vaccine development, and transplant tolerance.

Clinical Immunology has evolved over the past 20 years from a predominant laboratory base to a combined clinical and laboratory specialty. The clinical work of Immunologists is essentially out-patient based and involves primary immunological disorder, allergy, autoimmune rheumatic disease and hypersensitivity with joint pediatric clinics for children with immunodeficiency and allergy and immunoglobulin infusion clinics for patients with antibody deficiency.

On the laboratory front, authorized Immunologists are responsible for directing diagnostic immunology services and perform a wide range of duties including clinical liaison, interpretation and validation of results, quality assurance and assay development.

These kinds of infections are sometimes asymptomatic. Clinically infected person will be a carrier of pathogen causing disease and infection.  Such kinds of infections aren’t easily identified but only by microbial culture and molecular techniques.

An individual may develop infection signs only after a period of subclinical infection. During the course of clinical infection, weakness is the first onset symptom. Fever and drowsiness are later signs. These are the evolved responses of host system to get rid of infection. As an alternative to control or remove this pathogen, our body chooses to tolerate an infection.

Biological therapy so called immunotherapy is one type of treatment designed to boost the body's natural defenses to fight the cancer. It uses materials either made by the body or manmade to improve, target and restore proper functioning of immune system. This is done in either ways. One by stimulating our own defence centers to act smarter in attacking cancer cells, and the other by providing components of immune system (man-made immune system proteins).

In past few years biotherapy has become a key for curing cancer. Recently, new procedures of immune treatment are being studied for future impact of cancer. Few of them help train the immune system to attack cancer cells specifically.

Immune system is categorized into non-specific and specific response. Innate immunity is integral and is mobilized following the infection. Innate is termed non-specific because the protective response is the same regardless of the initiating infection. This is in contrast to the adaptive immune system which is slower, responds specifically, and generates an immunological memory.

The primary component of innate immunity is inflammation. Injured cells release cytokines and other pro-inflammatory factors like bradykinin, histamine, leukotriene, prostaglandins, and serotonin to contain the spread of infection and promote healing. These pro-inflammatory mediators induce vasodilatation and attract phagocytes. Neutrophils subsequently increase the response by attracting lymphocytes and leukocytes. Activation of the Complement cascade enhances the innate response.

An important consequence of complement cascade activation is opsonization. Opsonization of pathogenic antigens tags invasive microorganisms for ingestion and destruction by phagocytes. Though innate response involves a wide range of cell types but is mostly dependent on basophils, mast cell, neutrophils and macrophages. Another important function of the innate immune system is to stimulate the adaptive immune response via antigen presentation.